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So very easy! There was some strong opposition, though. Theology was, for him, scientia, a science which had to be based on rational argumentation and be subject to an autonomous scientific theory of knowledge. He was able, in his thinking, to avoid the tendency to negate the world while keeping faith with the demands of the supernatural order.
He saw that reason could contribute to the understanding of revelation, while the light of faith perfects reason by setting it free from its limitations. Faith is an act of the intellect — thinking with assent, though we can never grasp God by rational arguments.
Arguments show only that faith is not impossible or absurd. Intellectual life in the Middle Ages was characterised by a great trust in reason and profound confidence in the ability of human intelligence to discover the truth about God and the world. Men in the theological faculties of the universities began, in the fourteenth century, to lose confidence in the power of human intelligence, especially in the face of the Black Death which showed up the ambiguity of life.
The emphasis shifted from intelligence to will, and men began to reflect on the arbitrary power of God, rather than on an intelligible order in the universe. Our own estimate, our own way of looking at things, is always putting us in the wrong, by taking the short view.
And here we are, splitting hairs about all sorts of mysterious problems which do not concern us — we shall not be blamed at our judgement, for having failed to solve them. Strange creatures that we are, we forget the questions which really matter to us, matter vitally, and concentrate, of set purpose, on what is merely curiosity and waste of time.
So clear sighted we are, and so blind! By the middle of the nineteenth century the Church found itself at the centre of a grave intellectual crisis. The seeds of the estrangement of faith and reason can be detected in the fifteenth century movement we call the Renaissance which in some respects excessively celebrated the human and the individual in its attempt to recapture the achievements of Latin and Greek antiquity.
Luther did not follow the scholastic understanding of faith as an intellectual act which consisted in affirming those truths which had been revealed by God and entrusted to the Church. His approach emphasised the individual encounter with God.
Faith is more a trusting relationship than an intellectual assent. Self-incurred is this tutelage when its cause lies not in lack of reason but in lack of resolution and courage to use it without direction from another. Sapere aude! In the name of reason, philosophers of the Enlightenment opposed traditional authority, and often called into question the possibility and necessity of divine revelation.
As freethinkers, they encouraged others not to accept anything simply on the words of Aristotle, but to verify everything for themselves. His condemnation in was only formally revoked quite recently. From this point on the Church struggled, always in retreat, and by a resolute anti-liberalism, against these currents, which issued in the revolutions of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.
Liberalism had arisen as a reaction to the excessively authoritarian Church. A wave of de- christianisation swept France in the wake of the revolution of , because of the hatred that had been accumulating against the Church for centuries. The ultimate parody was witnessed in the 10 Paul VI.
Lumen Ecclesiae. Pierre Simon Laplace , a French mathematician and philosopher taught a doctrine of universal determinism. God was unnecessary, since everything was bound together and explicable on the scientific level, and everything was predictable if only all the causes were known.
This confidence in the power and certainty of scientific knowledge resulted in the complete secularisation of science and made faith unnecessary, or at least irrelevant.
Comte , another French philosopher, hammered in the last nail with his doctrine of positivism. He systematised the new rule of science, making the age of science follow logically and historically after the ages of religion and of philosophy.
Positivism maintained that all genuine human knowledge is contained within the boundaries of science. Whatever questions cannot be answered by scientific methods we must be content to leave permanently unanswered. Needless to say there were some reactions to the mainstream of thought.
Blaise Pascal had preferred to solve the dilemma of faith and reason by opposing the orders of science and religion, and the excesses of the French Revolution led many to think of rationalism as intellectually and morally bankrupt. In the Romantic movement of the 19th century, reason was suspect, and mystery rehabilitated. Right through the 19th century the Church was under intellectual siege. The new freedom brought into existence by the Enlightenment resulted in a plethora of schools of thought that menaced the authority of the Church.
The Church as a result lapsed into a fortress mentality as she saw herself besieged by successive waves of heresy and wickedness. Unhealthy reactions set in, and anathemas, restrictions and condemnations replaced much needed dialogue and clarification. In , Pope Pius IX issued the encyclical Quanta Cura, to which was appended his famous Syllabus of Errors, which rejected eighty of the most serious and prevalent errors of the day.
Relevant to our discussion were the following condemnations: Human reason is autonomous, and the sole judge of truth and falsehood. Reason is the principal norm by which man reaches knowledge of any kind, since all truths, including religious ones, originate from the natural power of human reason.
Divine revelation is imperfect and hence subject to continual and indefinite progress. Faith in Christ is detrimental to human reason. It produced two constitutions before it was adjourned due to political trouble in Rome. The first, Dei Filius, treated the Catholic faith, and the second, more contentious one, Pastor Aeternus, dealt with the Church of Christ, and most particularly with the question of papal infallibility. Pastor Aeternus has some bearing on our study in that, to the perception of the rationalist at least, infallible pronouncements seem to preclude the obvious need for the development of dogma as the Church finds itself having to proclaim its message in an ever-changing world.
We mentioned the case of Galileo above, and could cite as well the Crusades and the Inquisition. More particularly, we need to look at the teaching of the first constitution. The stimulus for its teachings on faith and reason are found in the prevalent polarisation of ideas between the rationalists on the one hand, and the fideists and traditionalists on the other. Rationalism is the belief that nothing should be accepted unless reason can perceive it to be true.
Fideists believe that reason is of no value at all in the understanding of Christian truth, and traditionalists believe that one must rely upon faith alone as communicated in the traditions of the Church. Rationalism or naturalism is indeed utterly opposed to the Christian faith, since this is of supernatural origin.
It is indeed thanks to this divine revelation that those matters concerning God which are not of themselves beyond the scope of human reason, can, even in the present state of the human race, be known by everyone without difficulty, with firm certitude and with no intermingling with error. Revelation is nonetheless necessary since God directs human beings to a supernatural end surpassing the understanding of the human mind. Human beings can be taught by divine revelation and elevated to a knowledge and perfection exceeding the natural without having to reach finally the possession of all truth and goodness by continual development.
Faith, indeed, can be commanded by God. Nevertheless, a submission of faith in accordance with reason is made possible by outward signs of revelation, like miracles and prophecies. Faith in itself is a gift of God and necessary for justification. Assent to it is free and not necessarily produced by arguments of human reason.
The Church is the sole guardian and teacher of the revealed word, and there is no just cause for those who have accepted the faith for changing this faith or for calling it into question until a scientific demonstration of its credibility and truth has been demonstrated. Some things are available to reason; other things are hidden in God. The divine mysteries are covered by the veil of faith, and are inaccessible to reason.
But reason, enlightened by faith, does give some understanding of mysteries by way of analogy, or connection. There can be no real disagreement between faith and reason. Misunderstandings or unsound views can give the appearance of contradiction, however. At the same time the legitimate conclusions of science cannot be contrary to 15 There have indeed been through the centuries many different rational arguments for belief in God. Far from faith and reason being at odds with one another they provide mutual support.
The Church does not hinder the development of human arts and studies: she promotes and assists them in many ways. On the whole the document came out more strongly against rationalism than against fideism.
Reason has its place, but always a subservient one. To doubt is a token of infidelity. Miracles and prophecies are not the common experience of ordinary men and women: they could not serve generally as a stimulus to belief.
Vatican I attempted to give a balanced picture, but the credibility of the Church was at a low mark. It would be up to the Second Vatican Council with its chastened vision of service, not dominance, to confirm the teaching of Vatican I, but with a new perspective. Modernism was the attempt to reconcile the traditional doctrines and practices of the Church with science and all other movements that had progressively become estranged from religion, or had set themselves in hostile opposition to it.
This attempt to harmonise reason and faith was necessary and praiseworthy in itself, but it fell foul of the Magisterium.
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